IB Pathways
Tower Bridge and the Thames at dusk, with the Shard and the City of London beyond

British Isles · May 2027 IB session · Autumn 2027 entry

United Kingdom

Offers in IB points before your results, and overseas fees since Brexit

Tower Bridge and the Thames

Ilya Grigorik · CC BY-SA 3.0

15 Oct Next deadline
22 Universities teaching in English
UCAS National application portal

22 institutions

Where you can study in English

This browser cannot draw the globe. Every place is in the list below.

Coins count universities
How to use the globeSize says how much is here, not how good a place is.Hollow markers: placed at the city, not at a campus.22 institutions with a resolved location.

How it works

The UK runs one central application system, UCAS, for almost every undergraduate course in the country.

In full

You pick five courses, write one personal statement for all of them, and universities make conditional offers in IB points, usually something like '36 points overall including HL 6,6,5'. Since Brexit you are treated as an international student: you pay overseas tuition, you need a Student visa, and you cannot borrow from the UK student loan system. The money is the problem.

Is it for you?

Why it might suit you

One application covers up to five courses across the whole country

All 5 reasons
  • One application covers up to five courses across the whole country
  • Offers are made in IB points and HL grades, so you know exactly what you are aiming for
  • Everything is taught in English, and degrees in England and Wales take three years, like Denmark’s
  • Very deep subject specialisation from day one, and strong course-level reputations far beyond Oxbridge
  • Scotland's four-year degrees let you keep two or three subjects open before you specialise

What to watch for

Most EU students pay international tuition (in England, Irish citizens and settled-status holders can be exceptions).

All 5 things to watch
  • Most EU students pay international tuition (in England, Irish citizens and settled-status holders can be exceptions). At Glasgow that is GBP 28,275-38,670 for 2027/28, and medicine is far higher
  • Most EU citizens get no UK tuition fee or maintenance loans and must fund it themselves; Irish citizens long resident in the EEA can get tuition fee support in England for courses starting before 2028
  • The Graduate Route post-study work visa is 18 months, not 2 years, for applications made on or after 1 January 2027 - so 18 months by the time you graduate
  • The 15 October deadline for Oxford, Cambridge, medicine, dentistry and veterinary is a full three months before everyone else
  • Admissions tests (UCAT, LNAT, ESAT, TMUA, TARA) have registration deadlines in September, before the UCAS deadline itself

What it is actually like

2 observations from people who have watched students go through this — observations, not rules.

Read them

The shape of the system

Almost every UK undergraduate course, at almost every institution, is applied for through one portal — which makes the sector look more uniform than it is.

The 4 routes in full

Almost every UK undergraduate course, at almost every institution, is applied for through one portal — which makes the sector look more uniform than it is. Underneath sit universities of very different ages and purposes, specialist conservatoires and art schools, further education colleges teaching degrees under a university’s validation, and degree apprenticeships that are jobs first. And the UK is four education systems, not one: Scotland’s degrees are four years and its fee and qualification rules are its own.

  • university

    Three-year bachelor degrees in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, four in Scotland, and specialised from the first term — you apply to read a subject rather than to a college in general. That suits a student who already knows, and suits a student who does not rather less than the Scottish or Dutch alternatives.

    Open to IB Often taught in English
  • Scottish university

    A separate system inside the same portal. Four-year honours degrees with a broader first two years, closer to a liberal-arts structure, and distinct fee and funding rules. For a student who wants to keep options open a while longer, this is the UK route to look at.

    Open to IB Often taught in English
  • conservatoire

    Music, dance and drama, with their own application route (UCAS Conservatoires) and their own calendar. Admission is by audition, and grades matter far less than the audition does.

    Partly open to IB Often taught in English

    Applied for separately from the main UCAS scheme. Not covered in detail on this site.

  • degree apprenticeship

    A paid job with a degree attached, funded by the employer, with no tuition fee to the apprentice. Applied for through the employer rather than UCAS, on the employer’s timetable.

    Rarely open to IB Often taught in English

    Almost always restricted to UK residents, so rarely open to an applicant from Denmark.

Getting in

How your IB is read

No national minimum. Offers are set course by course; the competitive research universities typically ask 34-39 points overall.

Subjects, levels and conversion
Accepted

Yes

Minimum

No national minimum. Offers are set course by course; the competitive research universities typically ask 34-39 points overall.

Subjects and levels

Offers are expressed as a total plus three Higher Level grades. The University of Glasgow states its Economics requirement as '36 (6,6,5)' plus 'HL English or Humanities and HL Mathematics (Analysis & Approaches)'. LSE publishes a range of '37 points overall (with three Higher level subjects at grades 6 6 6) to 39 points overall (with three Higher level subjects at grades 7 6 6)'. Named HL subjects are common, and quantitative courses increasingly require HL Mathematics: Analysis and Approaches specifically.

Score conversion

The UCAS Tariff scores each IB component separately; there is no single Tariff figure for the Diploma as a whole. IBO Certificate in Higher Level: H7 = 56, H6 = 48, H5 = 32, H4 = 24, H3 = 12, H2 and H1 = 0. IBO Certificate in Standard Level: S7 = 28, S6 = 24, S5 = 16, S4 = 12, S3 = 6, S2 and S1 = 0. IBO Certificate in Extended Essay and IBO Certificate in Theory of Knowledge each: A = 12, B = 10, C = 8, D = 6, E = 4. CAS carries no Tariff points because it is not accredited.

  • Most selective universities ignore the Tariff for IB applicants and make offers directly in points and HL grades. The Tariff matters mainly for less selective courses and for Clearing.
  • UCAS states the Extended Essay and Theory of Knowledge certificates were accredited in their own right and are awarded Tariff points 'when the certificates have been taken individually' - check with the university how your core points are counted inside a full Diploma.
  • LSE warns that 'offers made may also change from year to year' depending on the strength of the applicant pool, so published requirements are guidelines, not guarantees.
  • The IB Diploma itself requires 24 points or more to be awarded; UCAS records this but attaches no Tariff points to the Diploma as a whole.
Sources (6)

How United Kingdom reads an IB Diploma.

These are the pages this section was written from. None has been signed off by a person yet, so confirm anything consequential at the source.

  1. UCAS - When to apply (2027 entry key dates)

    Read 2026-09-24.

  2. UCAS - 2027 entry deadline for all undergraduate courses except those with a 15 October deadline

    Read 2026-09-22.

  3. UCAS - Filling in your UCAS Undergraduate application

    Read 2026-09-24.

  4. UCAS - New Tariff tables (PDF), International Baccalaureate section, pp. 22-24

    Read 2026-09-24.

  5. UCAS - Calculate your UCAS Tariff points

    Read 2026-09-22.

  6. GOV.UK - Student visa

    Read 2026-09-24.

None of these sources has been checked by a person yet.

How and when you apply

Through UCAS

The 7 steps
  1. From May 2026 you create one UCAS account and fill in one application. You choose up to five courses; for medicine, dentistry and veterinary you may only choose four in that subject.

  2. You write a personal statement. From 2026 entry UCAS changed it from one long essay to three separate questions, and the same statement goes to all five courses.

  3. A teacher at your school writes one academic reference. Ask early - references take time.

  4. Register separately for any admissions test your course needs (UCAT, LNAT, ESAT, TMUA or TARA). These registrations close in September, before the UCAS deadline.

  5. Submit by 15 October 2026 if you are applying to Oxford, Cambridge, medicine, dentistry or veterinary; otherwise by 13 January 2027.

  6. Universities reply with conditional offers stated in IB points and HL grades. Some courses interview between December and March.

  7. You reply with one firm choice and one insurance choice, then your IB results in July are matched against the conditions automatically.

Every course is selective and sets its own conditions - there is no open access. Selection is on predicted grades, the personal statement, the reference, and for some courses an admissions test and interview. Oxford and Cambridge interview most shortlisted applicants in December. The UCAS application fee for the 2027 cycle is GBP 34.50 for up to five choices (it was GBP 28.95 for 2026 entry).

Deadlines

Oxford, Cambridge, medicine, dentistry and veterinary medicine/science: by 15 October 2026.

All 27 dates
  • 12 May 2026

    UCAS applications open

    Via UK

    Details

    You can register and start writing. Nothing reaches a university yet.

    You can start filling in the application from this date.

    Source

  • 20 May 2026, 14:00 UK time
    2026 UCAT cycle, used for 2027 entry

    UCAT (medicine and dentistry) - account registration, bursary and access arrangements open

    Details

    Published on UCAT's test dates page as "20 May 2026 (14:00 UK Time)". You create the account first; test booking opens a month later.

    Source

  • 23 June 2026, 14:00 UK time
    2026 UCAT cycle, used for 2027 entry

    UCAT (medicine and dentistry) - booking opens

    Details

    Published on UCAT's test dates page as "23 June 2026 (14:00 UK Time)". The 2026 cycle is the one that feeds 2027 entry — UCAT's own home page says registration instructions for UCAT 2027 will be published later, and that cycle belongs to 2028 entry. Booking deadline and testing window are separate entries.

    Source

  • 13 July to 24 September 2026
    2026 UCAT cycle, used for 2027 entry

    UCAT (medicine and dentistry) - testing window

    Hard deadline

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    Published on UCAT's test dates page as a window beginning "13 July 2026" and ending "24 September 2026", which the page labels the "Last test day". Your sitting must fall inside this window, and the window closes eight days after the booking deadline, so a late booking leaves almost no choice of slot. Context, not a milestone: UCAT publishes results to universities in "Early November" with no day given — you get your own score on the day you test.

    Source

  • 20 July to 28 September 2026, 18:00 BST
    2027 entry

    UAT-UK admissions tests (ESAT, TMUA, TARA) - test booking for the October sitting

    Hard deadline

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    Published as "Test booking opens for October 2026" on 20 July 2026 3pm BST, closing 28 September 2026 6pm BST. The time is the closing time. Accounts for 2027 entry opened on 1 June 2026. Oxford and Cambridge applicants must use this October sitting apart from a few exceptions. Used for 2027 entry by Cambridge, Imperial, Oxford and UCL (ESAT); those four and LSE, Warwick and Durham (TMUA); and Oxford and UCL (TARA), per the test pages on esat-tmua.ac.uk.

    Source

  • 1 August 2026
    2026/27 LNAT cycle, used for September 2027 entry

    LNAT (law) - registration opens

    Details

    Published as "LNAT registration begins" on 1 August 2026. You cannot book a slot before this. Oxford and Cambridge applicants have only six weeks from here to register and book.

    Source

  • 1 September 2026

    Completed applications can be submitted

    Via UK

    Details

    A reference from the school is required before anything can be sent, so the school’s internal deadline is earlier than every date on this page.

    Nothing is sent to universities before this date.

    Source

  • 1 September 2026
    2026/27 LNAT cycle, used for September 2027 entry

    LNAT (law) - testing begins

    Details

    Published as "LNAT testing begins" on 1 September 2026. The first day a booked slot can actually be sat; the sitting deadlines that follow differ by university.

    Source

  • 15 September 2026
    2027 entry

    LNAT (law) - register and book, Oxford and Cambridge

    Hard deadline

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    Published as "Register and book by 15 September 2026". Registration opening and the start of testing are separate entries.

    Source

  • 16 September 2026, 15:00 UK time
    2026 UCAT cycle, used for 2027 entry

    UCAT (medicine and dentistry) - booking deadline

    Hard deadline

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    Published on UCAT's test dates page as "16 September 2026 (15:00 UK Time)". Miss it and you cannot apply to UCAT medical schools this cycle; UCAT's home page states the consortium makes no exceptions. The last day you can actually sit the test is 24 September 2026, which is its own entry.

    Source

  • 12 October to 16 October 2026
    2027 entry

    UAT-UK admissions tests (ESAT, TMUA, TARA) - October sitting

    Details

    Published as "tests 12-16 October 2026". Oxford and Cambridge applicants must use this October sitting apart from a few exceptions. Used for 2027 entry by Cambridge, Imperial, Oxford and UCL (ESAT); those four and LSE, Warwick and Durham (TMUA); and Oxford and UCL (TARA), per the test pages on esat-tmua.ac.uk.

    Source

  • 15 October 2026, 18:00 UK time

    Oxford, Cambridge, medicine, dentistry and veterinary medicine/science

    Hard deadline Via UK

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    Thirteen months before the course starts. UCAS says it is unusual for these universities to consider a late application. Admissions tests for these courses register earlier still, and the registration deadline is not the test date.

    UCAS’s deadline for these courses, three months before everyone else’s. UCAS says it is unusual for these universities to consider a late application, so treat 18:00 UK time on 15 October as the end. Admissions test registration closes even earlier.

    Source

  • 15 October 2026
    2027 entry

    LNAT (law) - sit the test, Oxford and Cambridge

    Hard deadline

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    Published as "sit by 15 October 2026". Registration and booking close a month earlier, on 15 September 2026.

    Source

  • 26 October to 21 December 2026, 18:00 GMT
    2027 entry

    UAT-UK admissions tests (ESAT, TMUA, TARA) - test booking for the January sitting

    Hard deadline

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    Published as test booking from 26 October 2026 3pm GMT to 21 December 2026 6pm GMT (registration reopens 5 October 2026). The time is the closing time. Not available for Oxford or Cambridge applicants. Other universities let you pick a sitting. Used for 2027 entry by Cambridge, Imperial, Oxford and UCL (ESAT); those four and LSE, Warwick and Durham (TMUA); and Oxford and UCL (TARA), per the test pages on esat-tmua.ac.uk.

    Source

  • 31 December 2026
    2027 entry

    LNAT (law) - sit the test, KCL, LSE and UCL

    Hard deadline

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    Published as "KCL, LSE and UCL: sit by 31 December 2026". LNAT universities listed are Cambridge, Oxford, King's College London, LSE, UCL, Bristol, Durham and SUSS (Singapore).

    Source

  • 4 January to 8 January 2027
    2027 entry

    UAT-UK admissions tests (ESAT, TMUA, TARA) - January sitting

    Details

    Published as "tests 4-8 January 2027". Not available for Oxford or Cambridge applicants. Used for 2027 entry by Cambridge, Imperial, Oxford and UCL (ESAT); those four and LSE, Warwick and Durham (TMUA); and Oxford and UCL (TARA), per the test pages on esat-tmua.ac.uk.

    Source

  • 13 January 2027, 18:00 UK time

    Equal consideration date for most courses

    Equal consideration Via UK

    Details

    Applications in by this date are guaranteed to be considered. Later ones may still be read, at the institution’s discretion, against whatever places remain.

    The 13th for 2027 entry, where 2026 entry used the 14th. The date moves between cycles, so a figure remembered from a sibling’s year is worth re-checking.

    Every application that arrives by this time must be given equal consideration. Applications after it are only looked at if places remain.

    Source

  • 13 January 2027
    2027 entry

    LNAT (law) - register, book and sit, Bristol and Durham

    Hard deadline

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    Published as "Bristol and Durham: register, book and sit by 13 January 2027". LNAT universities listed are Cambridge, Oxford, King's College London, LSE, UCL, Bristol, Durham and SUSS (Singapore).

    Source

  • 20 January 2027
    2027 entry

    LNAT (law) - register, all other universities

    Hard deadline

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    Published as "All others: register by 20 January 2027". LNAT universities listed are Cambridge, Oxford, King's College London, LSE, UCL, Bristol, Durham and SUSS (Singapore).

    Source

  • 25 January 2027
    2027 entry

    LNAT (law) - sit the test, all other universities

    Hard deadline

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    Published as "All others: ... sit by 25 January 2027". Registration for these universities closes on 20 January 2027. LNAT universities listed are Cambridge, Oxford, King's College London, LSE, UCL, Bristol, Durham and SUSS (Singapore).

    Source

  • 25 February 2027

    Extra opens

    Via UK

    Details

    For anyone who used all five choices and holds no offer: one further choice at a time.

    For applicants holding no offers.

    Source

  • 30 June 2027, 18:00 UK time
    2027 entry

    Final date for applications to be sent to universities

    Priority

    Details

    Later applications are considered after these.

    UCAS: "Applications received by this deadline will be sent to universities and colleges." Apply after it and your application goes into Clearing, where you can only apply for courses that still have places. The last day to apply at all is 23 September 2027.

    Source

  • 2 July 2027

    Clearing opens

    Rolling Via UK

    Details

    Considered as they arrive, until places run out.

    For applicants holding no offer, or whose results missed their conditions. Runs on vacancies, so it rewards moving quickly.

    IB results come out 6 July, so Clearing is already open when you get them.

    Source

  • 6 July 2027

    IB results released

    Via UK

    Details

    The point of the conditional offer. Universities confirm or release places against results that have only just arrived, which is what the whole UK calendar is built around.

  • 25 July 2027
    2027 entry

    LNAT (law) - late applications from international applicants: book your test

    Hard deadline

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    The LNAT dates page runs a separate late route for international applicants who send the UCAS form by 30 June 2027: book the test slot by 25 July 2027 and sit it by 31 July 2027. As an international applicant this is the only LNAT window still open after the January deadlines have passed, so it is worth knowing it exists — but it depends on the law course still having places.

    Source

  • 31 July 2027
    2027 entry

    LNAT (law) - late applications from international applicants: sit the test

    Hard deadline

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    The last sitting date on the whole LNAT calendar for this cycle. Booking for it closes on 25 July 2027, which is its own entry.

    Source

  • 23 September 2027, 18:00 UK time

    Final date for 2027 entry applications

    Hard deadline Via UK

    Details

    After this the door closes.

    After this the cycle is closed.

    Last date to apply at all for autumn 2027.

    Source

Language

Everything. All undergraduate teaching is in English.

Proving your English, and the rest
English-taught bachelors

Everything. All undergraduate teaching is in English.

Proving your English

UK universities generally accept IB English A at a specified grade, and often IB English B HL, as proof of English. Exact accepted grades vary by university; check each course page. A Student visa also requires English at the level set out in the immigration rules, which your university confirms on your CAS.

Local language needed?

Not for English-taught programmes

  • Scottish universities teach in English too; Gaelic is not needed.
  • Because requirements are set per university, confirm the exact IB English grade accepted on the course page rather than assuming.

Money and life

Money

Most EU students pay the international rate. In England, settled or pre-settled status, or (for autumn 2027, the last intake) being Irish or a UK national long resident in the EEA, can mean Home fees.

Fees, living costs and funding
Tuition, EU/EEA

Most EU students pay the international rate. In England, settled or pre-settled status, or (for autumn 2027, the last intake) being Irish or a UK national long resident in the EEA, can mean Home fees. Scotland sets its own rules. (2026/27 and 2027/28)

Tuition, non-EU

University of Glasgow 2027/28: Arts and Social Sciences GBP 28,275; Science, Engineering, Nursing and Medical/Veterinary/Life Sciences GBP 33,708; Veterinary Medicine and Surgery GBP 38,670 (Medicine MBChB and Dentistry BDS listed as TBC). Glasgow 2026/27 for comparison: Arts and Social Sciences GBP 27,720; Science and Engineering GBP 33,210; Medicine MBChB GBP 62,730; Dentistry BDS GBP 58,500. Across the sector a realistic 2026/27 planning range for an IB student from Denmark paying international fees is roughly GBP 22,000-40,000 (about €25,600-46,500) a year for a normal degree, and GBP 45,000-70,000 (about €52,300-81,400) a year for clinical medicine, at the ECB rate of 24 September 2026. (2027/28 (Glasgow) and 2026/27 (Glasgow, sector range))

Application fee

UCAS application fee: GBP 34.50 for up to five choices in the 2027 cycle (GBP 28.95 for 2026 entry).

Living costs

University of Edinburgh estimates GBP 1,546 per month for a single undergraduate living in Edinburgh. London is higher; the Home Office assumes GBP 1,529 per month in London and GBP 1,171 outside London for visa purposes. (2026/27)

  • For contrast, a UK 'Home' student in England pays a capped fee of GBP 9,790 in 2026-27 and GBP 10,050 in 2027-28. Most EU students will not get that rate; the exceptions are under tuition above.
  • Scottish universities charge EU students the international rate; the pre-Brexit free-tuition arrangement in Scotland ended in 2021.
  • Visa costs on top of tuition: Student visa GBP 558 from outside the UK, plus the Immigration Health Surcharge at GBP 776 per year of your course (both as published on GOV.UK, September 2026).
  • Glasgow's 2027/28 medicine and dentistry fees were still marked TBC on 2026-09-24 - re-check before you commit to a clinical course.

Funding you could actually get

  • Without settled or pre-settled status, most EU citizens get no UK tuition fee or maintenance loans: assume you pay every year in full. Irish citizens (tuition fee support) and UK nationals (tuition and maintenance) long resident in the EEA are the exceptions in England, for courses starting before 1 January 2028; see the Department for Education's FAQ (educationhub.blog.gov.uk).
  • University-run international scholarships are the main realistic source. Almost every university runs merit awards for international undergraduates, usually a partial fee discount of a few thousand pounds; amounts and deadlines are set per university, so check each one.
  • Danish SU can follow you here if you can claim it (Danish citizens, or EU/EEA citizens with equal status under EU rules) and meet the ties-to-Denmark requirement. The UK is outside the EU/EEA, so a full degree there follows separate rules, with its own ties-to-Denmark form: check su.dk early. If you cannot claim SU, look first at your own country's student finance: several EU/EEA systems fund a full degree in another country.
  • Some universities still run specific EU-transition or country scholarships; check each course page rather than assuming.

Living there

Irish citizens need no visa (Common Travel Area).

Residency, work, housing and healthcare
Residency

Irish citizens need no visa (Common Travel Area). Everyone else needs a Student visa; EU citizenship gives no shortcut since Brexit. You can apply from outside the UK up to 6 months before your course starts; the fee is GBP 558 and you also pay the Immigration Health Surcharge of GBP 776 for each year of your course. You need a Confirmation of Acceptance for Studies (CAS) from your university and you must show money for living costs: GBP 1,529 per month for up to 9 months in London, or GBP 1,171 per month outside London, held in your account for 28 consecutive days ending no more than 31 days before you apply. At degree level you can normally stay up to 5 years.

Working

On a Student visa for a full-time degree at a university, you can work up to 20 hours a week in term time and full time in the holidays (Immigration Rules, Appendix Student, ST 26.1). Your exact limit is printed on your visa.

Housing

Almost all UK universities guarantee a place in university accommodation to first-year international students who apply by the stated deadline, which is usually in the summer once you have firmly accepted an offer. This is much easier than the Netherlands or Denmark. Apply the moment your firm choice is confirmed.

Healthcare

You pay the Immigration Health Surcharge of GBP 776 (about €900) per year as part of the visa application. That gives you access to the NHS on the same basis as a UK resident for the length of your visa. Register with a local GP when you arrive. An EHIC or the Danish yellow card does not replace this.

Sources

  1. UCAS - When to apply (2027 entry key dates) — checked 2026-09-24
  2. UCAS - 2027 entry deadline for all undergraduate courses except those with a 15 October deadline — checked 2026-09-22
  3. UCAS - Filling in your UCAS Undergraduate application — checked 2026-09-24
  4. UCAS - New Tariff tables (PDF), International Baccalaureate section, pp. 22-24 — checked 2026-09-24
  5. UCAS - Calculate your UCAS Tariff points — checked 2026-09-22
  6. GOV.UK - Student visa — checked 2026-09-24
  7. GOV.UK - Student visa: money you need — checked 2026-09-24
  8. GOV.UK - Immigration health surcharge: how much you pay — checked 2026-09-24
  9. GOV.UK - Graduate visa — checked 2026-09-24
  10. University of Glasgow - Tuition fees for international students — checked 2026-09-24
  11. University of Glasgow - Economics MA(SocSci) entry requirements — checked 2026-09-24
  12. LSE - Undergraduate entry requirements (International Baccalaureate) — checked 2026-09-24
  13. Imperial College London - Undergraduate tuition fees (Home fee caps 2026-27 and 2027-28) — checked 2026-09-24
  14. University of Edinburgh - Fees and finance (living costs 2026-2027) — checked 2026-09-24
  15. UAT-UK - Deadlines for ESAT, TMUA and TARA — checked 2026-09-24
  16. LNAT - Dates and deadlines — checked 2026-09-24
  17. UCAT - test dates for the 2026 cycle (registration, booking, testing window, booking deadline) — checked 2026-09-24
  18. University of Cambridge - International entry requirements — checked 2026-09-22
  19. UCAS - What is the application fee for the 2027 cycle? — checked 2026-09-24
  20. GOV.UK - Immigration Rules, Appendix Student (work conditions, ST 26.1) — checked 2026-09-24
  21. Founding years are from Wikipedia. — checked 2026-09-22